篇一：cRABS和oRABS的区别
隔离器（Isolator）与cRABS和oRABS的区别
blueski推荐 [2012-6-20]
出处：sina blog
作者：李永康
篇二：中文菜谱常见翻译方法
中文菜谱常见翻译方法
中餐菜谱不容易翻译，原因是中国人的饮食文化比较发达，对菜名特别讲究。菜单翻译的核心内容是菜用什么原料做成，因为外国人在餐桌上最关心的是吃什么东西。其次要讲清楚的是菜的用料，刀法和烹调方法。由此可见，要译好菜谱，就必须知道一些主要的用料，刀法，烹调方法及某些准备步骤，希望下面的英文翻译对诸位在翻译公司工作的同行有所帮助：
1． 常见的用料
鸡chicken鸭duck鹅 goose 鱼类 fish肉类 meat猪肉 pork牛肉 beef 小牛肉 veal 羊肉 mutton小羊肉 lamb牛尾 oxtail 里脊 fillet排骨 spareribs 腰子 kidney 肚子 tripe肝 liver 舌 tongue下水 offals 蹄子 trotter胗
gizzard鸡什 giblets 鹿肉 venison 鸡脯 chicken breast甲鱼 turtle 海味 seafood虾 shrimp干贝 scallop螃蟹 crab鱿鱼squid海蛰 jellyfish黄鳝
finless eel海螺 whelk野味 game兔 rabbit鸽 pigeon鹌鹑 quail龙虾 lobster 牡蛎oyster田螺 snail田鸡 frog蛇 snake 腌肉 bacon香肠
sausage火腿ham熊掌 bear’s paw鱼翅 shark’s fin燕窝 bird’s nest
2． 煮前的准备工作
去骨 boning 例如， 去骨鸭掌打鳞scaling例如，去鳞鱼 scaled fish
剥/去皮 skinning 例如，去皮田鸡skinned frogs
脱壳 shelling 例如，虾仁shelled shrimps
腌制 pickling例如，咸酸菜pickled vegetables
3. 常用刀法及用料形状
（1） 常用刀法
切片slice切丝 shred 切丁 dice切柳fillet切碎 mince捣烂 mash酿入 stuff
(2) 常用用料形状
肉/ 鱼片sliced meat / fish 或 meat / fish slices肉丝 shredded meat 或 pork shreds肉/鸡丁 diced pork / chicken 或meat / chicken cubes肉末 minced meat肉丸 meat balls肉馅 meat filling
4. 中餐菜单翻译法
（1） 直译法。英译时把对应的制作方法译出来，再以该菜的主要原料为中心词。
如：炖牛肉 Stewed Beef
（2） 直译加注法。英译时直接按中文菜名译出其意，然后再补充说明其内在含义。 如：
狮子头 Lion’s Head ——Pork Meat Balls
全家福 Happy Family——A combination of shrimps, pork, beef, chicken, lobster and mixed vegetables with brown sauce
(3) 意译法。此法可分为三种情况：
1） 原料+with+作料。 以原料为中心词，有时捎带把烹调法也译出，再加上用介词with 或in 与作料构成的短语即可。如：
海米白菜Chinese Cabbage with Dried Shrimps
鱼香肉丝Shredded Pork with Garlic Sauce
2) 作料+原料 。 即把作料用作修饰语，放在中心词原料的前面。如：
咖喱牛肉 Curry Beef古老肉Sweet & Sour Pork
3) 以“实”对“虚”法。即舍去中菜名里的喻义，夸张等说法而用平直，明白的英语译出。如：
发财好市Black Moss Cooked with Oysters
彩凤喜迎春 Baked Chicken and Fried Quail Eggs
蚂蚁上树 Vermicelli with Spicy Minced Pork
龙虎凤大烩 Thick Soup of Snake, Cat and Chicken
4) “移花接木”法。借用西方人熟悉并了解的欧洲菜名或主食名来译部分中菜名与少数主食，因为它们之间有许多相似之处。译文地道，通俗易懂，能 收到事半功倍的效果。如： 烤排骨Barbecued Spare Ribs饺子Chinese-style Ravioli
5) 音译加释义法。先按中文用拼音译出，然后再加以解释性的英译，使英译文保留点“中国味”。
如：包子 Baozi——Stuffed Bun馒头 Mantou——Steamed Bread
6)“随机应变”法：原料+地名+Style。应用此法可以灵活地处理一些难以对付的地方风味特色菜名。英译出原料名后，再稍加“点拨”就可以大功告成。如：
广东龙虾 Lobster Cantonese Style麻婆豆腐 Bean Curd Sichuan Style
5. 中餐常见的烹调方法
中菜的烹调方法至少有50多种，但大体不离：煮 （boiling）, 煲/炖 （stewing）,烧/焖/烩（braising）, 煎（frying）,炒（stir-frying）,爆（quick-frying）,炸（deep-frying）,扒（frying and simmering）, 煸（sauteing）,煨 （simmering）, 熏（smoking）,烤（roasting/barbecuing）, 烘（baking）, 蒸（steaming）, 白灼（scalding）等基本方法。
煮 boiled.如 “煮咸牛肉” （Boiled Corned Beef）
煲/炖 stewed.如“清炖牛尾” (Stewed Ox Tail in Clear Soup)
烧braised.如“红烧牛蹄”(Braised Ox Trotters in Brown Sauce)
煎（pan-）fried.如 “煎明虾” （Fried Prawns）
炒stir-fried如“炒鸡丁”（Stir-Fried Chicken Dices）
爆 quick-fried.如“葱爆羊肉” (Quick-fried lamb with Scallion in Ginger Sauce) 炸 deep-fried. 如 “炸大虾” (Deep-fried prawns)
扒fried and simmered.如“虾子扒海参” （Fried and Simmered Sea Cucumber with Shrimps Roe）
煸sauted .如 “干煸鳝鱼” (Sauted Eel Slices)
煨simmered. 如“煨牛肉” （Simmered Beef）
焖 braised如 “黄酒焖猪排”(Braised pork chops in rice wine)
烩 braised 如 “烩鸡丝” （Braised chicken shreds with peas）
熏 smoked 如 “熏鱼” (Smoked Fish)
烘 baked如 “烘鸽” （Baked Pigeon）
蒸 steamed 如 “蒸鲜鱼” （Steamed Fresh Fish）
酱/醋 marinated 如 “酱鸡” （Marinated Chicken）
卤 spicy; stewed in gravy如“卤鸭”（Spicy Duck）
涮 instant-boiled如 “涮羊肉” （Instant-Boiled Mutton Slices）
酿 stuffed 如“酿青椒” （Stuffed Green Pepper）
烤 roast; barbecued如“烤鹅” （Roast Goose）
清蒸 steamed (in clear soup) 如 “清蒸桂鱼” （Steamed Mandarin Fish）
清炖 stewed in clear soup如 “清炖甲鱼” （Stewed Turtle in Clear Soup） 白灼/微煮 scalded如“白灼海虾”（Scalded Prawns）
红烧 braised in brown sauce如 “红烧蹄筋” （Braised Pork Tendon in Brown Sauce）
干烧 in pepper sauce如“干烧干贝” （Scallop in Pepper Sauce）
麻辣 with hot pepper如 “麻辣豆腐”（Bean Curd with Hot Pepper / Spice Bean Curd） 酱爆 in bean sauce如“酱爆肉丁” （Diced Pork in Bean Sauce）
鱼香 in (spicy) garlic sauce如“鱼香肉丝” （Shredded Pork in Garlic Sauce）
糖醋 with sweet and sour sauce 如“糖醋排骨” （Spareribs with Sweet and Sour Sauce） 宫保 with chili and peanuts 如 “宫保鸡丁” （Diced Chicken with Chili and Peanuts） 脆皮 crisp (in spicy sauce) 如 “脆皮鱼” （Crisp Fish）
香酥 crisp fried 如“香酥鸡” （Crisp Fried Chicken）
焦熘fried in sauce 如“焦熘鱼片” （Fried Fish Slices in Sauce）
甜酸 sweet and sour 如“甜酸肉”（Sweet & Sour Pork）
胡辣 with pepper and chili 如“胡辣海参” （Sea Slug with Pepper and Chili） 油淋 drip-fried with oil如 “油淋兔” （Drip-Fried Rabbit with oil）
干煸 dry-sauteed 如“干煸季豆” （Dry-sauteed String Beans）
盐水 boiled in salt water 如“盐水虾” （Boiled Shrimps in Salt Water）
家常 home style如“家常豆腐” （Bean Curd Home Style）
陈皮 with spicy orange peel 如 “陈皮鸡” （Chicken in Spicy Orange Peel） 回锅 double-sauteed 如“回锅肉” （Double-sauteed Pork Slices）
五香 spiced如“五香牛肉” (Spiced Beef)
干炸 dry deep-fried 如“干炸羊肉”（Dry Deep-fried Lamb Breast）
软炸 soft deep-fried 如 “软炸里脊” （Soft-fried Pork Fillet）
酥炸 crisp deep-fried 如“酥炸羊脯” （Crisp Fried Lamb Breast）
串烤 skewered 如“串烤羊肉青椒”（Skewered Mutton with Green Pepper）
铁扒 grilled 如“铁扒乳鸽” （Grilled Baby Pigeon）
烧烤 roast 如“烤乳猪”（Roast Suckling Pig）
砂锅 in casserole如“砂锅鱼翅” （Shark’s Fin in Casserole）
锅巴 with sizzling /crispy rice crust 如“锅巴海参” （Sea Slug with Sizzling / Crispy Rice Crust）
芙蓉 with egg white如“芙蓉海参” (Sea Cucumbers with Egg white)
麻酱 with sesame paste 如“麻酱海参”（Beche-de-mer with Sesame Paste）
三鲜 with two other delicacies 如“三鲜海参” （Sea Cucumbers with Other Two Delicacies）
醋溜 in distilled grains sauce 如“醋溜鸡片” （Sliced Chicken in Distilled Grains Sauce）
凉拌 in soy sauce 如“凉拌海蛰” （Jellyfish in Soy Sauce）
酸辣 hot and sour 如“酸辣黄瓜” （Hot and Sour Cucumber）
姜汁 in ginger sauce 如“姜汁扁豆” （Snap Beans in Ginger Sauce）
蚝油 in oyster sauce 如“蚝油香菇” （ Mushrooms in Oyster Sauce）
蒜泥 with mashed garlic 如“蒜泥胡豆” （Broad Beans with Mashed Garlic） 什锦 mixed; assorted如“什锦丝冬粉” (Assorted Shreds with Vermicelli) 茄汁 in tomato sauce如“茄汁鸡脯”（Chicken Breast in Tomato Sauce） 咖喱 with curry 如“咖喱牛肉” （Fried Beef withy Curry）
八宝 (stuffed) with eight delicacies如 “八宝鸡” （Chicken Stuffed with Eight Delicacies）
葱爆 quick-fried with scallion in ginger sauce如 “葱爆羊肉” （Quick-fried Lamb with Scallion in Ginger Sauce）
粉蒸 steamed in rice flour如“粉蒸牛肉” （Steamed Beef in Rice Flour） 奶油 in cream sauce 如 “奶油鱼肚” （Fried Fish Maw in Cream Sauce）
木犀 with scrambled eggs and fungus如“木犀肉” （Fried Pork with Scrambled Eggs and Fungus）
醉 liquor-preserved 如 “醉蟹” （Liquor-preserved Crabs）
辣味 in chili sauce如“辣味烩虾” （Braised Prawns in Rice Wine）
豆豉 in black bean sauce 如“豆豉桂鱼” （Mandarin Fish in Black Bean Sauce） 黄焖 braised in rice wine 如“黄焖大虾” （Braised Prawns in Rice Wine）
椒盐 with pepper and salt如“椒盐排骨” （Spare Ribs with Pepper and Salt） 怪味 multi-flavored 如“怪味鸡” （Multi-flavored Chicken）
西餐 (Western Food)
头盘及沙拉类
1腌熏三文鱼
Smoked Salmon
2腌三文鱼
Marinated Salmon with Lemon and Capers
3 凯撒沙拉
Caesar Salad
4 鲜蘑鸡肝批
Chicken Liver Terrine with Morels
5 奶酪瓤蟹盖
Baked Stuffed Crab Shell
6 鲜果海鲜沙拉
Seafood Salad with Fresh Fruit
7 厨师沙拉
Chef's Salad
8 金枪鱼沙拉
Tuna Fish Salad
9 尼斯沙拉
Salad Nicoise
汤类
10 奶油蘑菇汤
Cream of Mushroom Soup
11 奶油胡萝卜汤
Cream of Carrot Soup
12 奶油芦笋汤
Cream of Asparagus Soup
13 番茄浓汤
Traditional Tomato Soup
14 海鲜周打汤
Seafood Chowder
15 法式洋葱汤
French Onion Soup
16 牛肉清汤
Beef Consommé
17 匈牙利浓汤
Hungarian Beef Goulash
18 香浓牛尾汤
Oxtail Soup
19 意大利蔬菜汤
Minestrone Soup
20 蔬菜干豆汤
Hearty Lentil Soup
21 牛油梨冻汤
Chilled Avocado Soup
22 西班牙番茄冻汤
Gazpacho
禽类
23 红酒鹅肝
Braised Goose Liver in Red Wine
24 奶酪火腿鸡排
Chicken Cordon Bleu
25 烧瓤春鸡卷
Grilled Stuffed Chicken Rolls
26 红酒烩鸡
Braised Chicken with Red Wine
27 烤鸡胸酿奶酪蘑菇馅
Baked Chicken Breast Stuffed with Mushrooms and Cheese 28 炸培根鸡肉卷
Deep-Fried Chicken and Bacon Rolls
29 水波鸡胸配意式香醋汁
Poached Chicken Breast with Balsamic Sauce
30 烤火鸡配红浆果少司
Roast Turkey with Cranberry Sauce
31 烤瓤火鸡
Roast Stuffed Turkey
32 烧烤鸡腿
Barbecued Chicken Leg
33 烤柠檬鸡腿配炸薯条
Roasted Lemon Marinade Chicken Leg with French Fries 34 扒鸡胸
Char-Grilled Chicken Breast
35 咖喱鸡
Chicken Curry
36 秘制鸭胸配黑菌炒土豆
Pan-fried Duck Breast with Sautéed Potatoes and Truffles 牛肉类
37 红烩牛肉
Stewed Beef
38 白烩小牛肉
Fricasseed Veal
39
牛里脊扒配黑椒少司
Grilled Beef Tenderloin with Black Pepper Sauce
40 扒肉眼牛排
Grilled Beef Rib-Eye Steak
41 西冷牛排配红酒少司
篇三：新标准大学英语综合教程第三册重点文章及翻译
Unit 1 Catching Crabs
1 In the fall of our final year, our mood changed. The relaxed atmosphere of the preceding summer semester, the impromptu ball games, the boating on the Charles River, the late-night parties had disappeared, and we all started to get our heads down, studying late, and attendance at classes rose steeply again. We all sensed we were coming to the end of our stay here, that we would never get a chance like this again, and we became determined not to waste it. Most important of course were the final exams in April and May in the following year. No one wanted the humiliation of finishing last in class, so the peer group pressure to work hard was strong. Libraries which were once empty after five o'clock in the afternoon were standing room only until the early hours of the morning, and guys wore the bags under their eyes and their pale, sleepy faces with pride, like medals proving their diligence.
2But there was something else. At the back of everyone's mind was what we would do next, when we left university in a few months' time. It wasn't always the high flyers with the top grades who knew what they were going to do. Quite often it was the quieter, less impressive students who had the next stages of their life mapped out. One had landed a job in his brother's advertising firm in Madison Avenue, another had got a script under provisional acceptance in Hollywood. The most ambitious student among us was going to work as a party activist at a local level. We all saw him ending up in the Senate or in Congress one day. But most people were either looking to continue their studies, or to make a living with a white-collar job in a bank, local government, or anything which would pay them enough to have a comfortable time in their early twenties, and then settle down with a family, a mortgage and some hope of promotion.
3I went home at Thanksgiving, and inevitably, my brothers and sisters kept asking me what I was planning to do. I didn't know what to say. Actually, I did know what to say, but I thought they'd probably criticize me, so I told them what everyone else was thinking of doing.
4My father was watching me but saying nothing. Late in the evening, he invited me to his study. We sat down and he poured us a drink.
5"So?" he said.
6"Er … so what?"
7"So what do you really want to do?" he asked.
8My father was a lawyer, and I had always assumed he wanted me to go to law school, and follow his path through life. So I hesitated.
9Then I replied, “I want to travel, and I want to be a writer.”
10 This was not the answer I thought he would expect. Travel? Where? A writer? About what? I braced myself for some resistance to the idea.
11There was a long silence.
12 "Interesting idea," he said finally.
13 There was another long silence.
14 "I kind of wish I'd done that when I was your age."
15 I waited.
16 "You have plenty of time. You don't need to go into a career which pays well just at the moment. You need to find out what you really enjoy now, because if you don't, you won't be
successful later."
17 "So how do I do this?“
18 He thought for a moment. Then he said, "Look, it's late. Let's take the boat out tomorrow morning, just you and me. Maybe we can catch some crabs for dinner, and we can talk more." 19 It was a small motor boat, moored ten minutes away, and my father had owned it for years. Early next morning we set off along the estuary. We didn't talk much, but enjoyed the sound of the seagulls and the sight of the estuary coastline and the sea beyond.
20 There was no surf on the coastal waters at that time of day, so it was a smooth half-hour ride until my father switched off the motor. "Let's see if we get lucky," he said, picked up a rusty, mesh basket with a rope attached and threw it into the sea.
21 We waited a while, then my father stood up and said, "Give me a hand with this," and we hauled up the crab cage onto the deck.
22 Crabs fascinated me. They were so easy to catch. It wasn't just that they crawled into such an obvious trap, through a small hole in the lid of the basket, but it seemed as if they couldn't be bothered to crawl out again even when you took the lid off. They just sat there, waving their claws at you.
23 The cage was brimming with dozens of soft shell crabs, piled high on top of each other. "Why don't they try to escape?" I wondered aloud to my father.
24 "Just watch them for a moment. Look at that one, there! He's trying to climb out, but every time the other crabs pull him back in," said my father.
25 And we watched. The crab climbed up the mesh towards the lid, and sure enough, just as it reached the top, one of its fellow crabs reached out, clamped its claw onto any available leg, and pulled it back. Several times the crab tried to defy his fellow captives, without luck.
26 "Now watch!" said my father. "He's starting to get bored with this game."
27 Not only did the crab give up its lengthy struggle to escape, but it actually began to help stop other crabs trying to escape. He'd finally chosen an easy way of life.
28 Suddenly I understood why my father had suggested catching crabs that morning. He looked at me. "Don't get pulled back by the others," he said. "Spend some time figuring out who you are and what you want in life. Look back at the classes you're taking, and think about which ones were most productive for you personally. Then think about what's really important to you, what really interests you, what skills you have. Try to figure out where you want to live, where you want to go, what you want to earn, how you want to work. And if you can't answer these questions now, then take some time to find out. Because if you don't, you'll never be happy."
29 He paused.
30 "So you want to travel?" he asked.
31 "Yes," I replied.
32 "Better get you a passport. And you want to be a writer?"
33 "I think so."
34 "Interesting choice. We've never had a writer in the family," he said.
35 My father started the motor and we set off back home.
抓 螃 蟹
1大学最后一年的秋天，我们的心情变了。刚刚过去的夏季学期的轻松氛围、即兴球赛、查尔斯河上的泛舟以及深夜晚会都不见了踪影，我们开始埋头学习，苦读到深夜，课堂出勤率再次急剧上升。我们都觉得在校时间不多了，以后再也不会有这样的学习机会了，所以都下定决心不再虚度光阴。当然，下一年四五月份的期末考试最为重要。我们谁都不想考全班倒数第一，那太丢人了，因此同学们之间的竞争压力特别大。以前每天下午五点以后，图书馆就空无一人了，现在却要等到天快亮时才会有空座，小伙子们熬夜熬出了眼袋，他们脸色苍白，睡眼惺忪，却很自豪，好像这些都是表彰他们勤奋好学的奖章。
2 还有别的事情让大家心情焦虑。每个人都在心里盘算着过几个月毕业离校之后该找份什么样的工作。并不总是那些心怀抱负、成绩拔尖的高材生才清楚自己将来要做什么，常常是那些平日里默默无闻的同学早早为自己下几个阶段的人生做好了规划。有位同(本文来自：wwW.xIAocAofaNwEn.com 小 草范 文 网:crabs中文怎么读)学在位于麦迪逊大道他哥哥的广告公司得到了一份工作，另一位同学写的电影脚本已经与好莱坞草签了合约。我们当中野心最大的一位同学准备到地方上当一个政党活动家，我们都预料他最终会当上参议员或国会议员。但大多数同学不是准备继续深造，就是想在银行、地方政府或其他单位当个白领，希望在20出头的时候能挣到足够多的薪水，过上舒适的生活，然后就娶妻生子，贷款买房，期望升职，过安稳日子。
3感恩节的时候我回了一趟家，兄弟姐妹们免不了不停地问我毕业后有什么打算，我不知道该说什么。实际上，我知道该说什么，但我怕他们批评我，所以只对他们说了别人都准备干什么。
4父亲看着我，什么也没说。夜深时，他叫我去他的书房。我们坐了下来，他给我们俩各倒了杯饮料。
5 “怎么样？”他问。
6 “啊，什么怎么样？”
7 “你毕业后到底想做什么？”他问道。
8 父亲是一名律师，我一直都认为他想让我去法学院深造，追随他的人生足迹，所以我有点儿犹豫。
9 过了会儿我回答说：“我想旅行，我想当个作家。”
10我想这不是他所期待的答案。旅行？去哪儿旅行？当作家？写什么呀？我做好了遭到他反对的心理准备。
11 接着是一段长长的沉默。
12 “这想法有点意思，”他最后说。
13 接着又是一段长长的沉默。
14 “我真有点希望自己在你这个年纪时能做这些事儿。”
15 我在等他把话说完。
16 “你还有很多时间，不必急于进一个暂时报酬高的行业。你现在要搞清楚自己真正喜欢什么，如果你弄不清楚，以后就不可能成功。”
17 “那我该怎么办？”
18 他想了一会儿。然后他说道：“瞧，现在太晚了。我们明天早晨乘船出海去，就我们两个。也许我们能抓点螃蟹当晚餐，我们还可以再谈谈。”
19 那是一艘小小的机动船，停泊在离我们家约十分钟路程的地方，是好些年前父亲买的。次日清晨，我们沿着港湾出发，一路上没说多少话，只是默默地欣赏着海鸥的叫声，还有港湾沿岸和远处大海的景色。
20在这个时候沿海水域没什么风浪，船平稳地航行了半个小时之后父亲把船停了下来。他说：“咱们在这儿试试运气吧，”然后抓起一个系上绳子的生了锈的网状篓子抛到海里。 21我们等了一会儿，父亲站起来说，“来帮我一把。”于是我们一起将蟹篓子拽上了甲板。 22螃蟹让我着迷，它们太容易抓了。不仅仅是因为它们顺着篓盖上的小孔爬进一个再明显不过的陷阱，更因为即便盖子打开了，它们似乎也懒得从里面爬出来，只会趴在那儿冲你挥动着蟹钳。
23篓子里挤满了几十只软壳螃蟹，一只压着一只，堆得老高。“它们为什么不逃走啊？”我满腹狐疑地问父亲。
24 “你先观察一下，看那只螃蟹，那儿！它想爬出去，但每次都被同伴拽了回去，”父亲说。 25我们接着观察。那只螃蟹顺着网眼向顶盖攀援，每当它爬到顶盖时，果然就会有另一只螃蟹举起蟹钳夹住它的腿把它拽下来。这只螃蟹尝试了好几次想挣脱它的狱中同伴，但都没能成功。
26 “快看！”父亲说。“它开始对这种游戏感到不耐烦了。”
27 那只螃蟹不仅放弃了漫长的逃亡之战，而且还帮着把其他想逃跑的螃蟹拽下来。它最终选择了一种轻松的活法。
28 我忽然明白了父亲为什么提议早上来抓螃蟹。他看着我说：“你可别被别人拽下来哦。花点时间想想你是哪一类人，你这一生希望得到什么。??”“??回顾一下你在大学修的课程，想想有哪些课对你个人来说最有益。然后再想想什么对你最重要，什么最使你感兴趣，你有什么技能。琢磨一下你想在哪里生活，你想去哪里，想挣多少钱，想做什么样的工作。如果你现在不能回答这些问题，你就得花点时间去找出答案。你不这样做的话，永远都不会幸福的。”
29 他停顿了一下。
30 “你想去旅行？”他接着问我。
31 “对，”我回答说。
32 “那就去申请护照吧。你想当作家？”
33 “对。”
34 “有趣的选择，我们家还没出过作家呢，”他说。
35 我父亲发动了马达，我们返航回家。
Unit 2 Cultural Childhoods
1 When I look back on my own childhood in the 1970s and 1980s and compare it with children today, it reminds me of that famous sentence "The past is a foreign country: They do things differently there" (from L. P. Hartley's novel The Go-Between). Even in a relatively short period of time, I can see the enormous transformations that have taken place in children's lives and in the ways they are thought about and treated.
2 Looking further back I can see vast differences between contemporary and historical childhoods. Today, children have few responsibilities, their lives are characterized by play not work, school not paid labour, family rather than public life and consumption instead of production. Yet this is all relatively recent. A hundred years ago, a 12 year
old working in a factory would have been perfectly acceptable. Now, it would cause social services' intervention and the prosecution of both parents and factory owner.
3The differences between the expectations placed on children today and those placed on them in the past are neatly summed up by two American writers, Barbara Ehreeich and Deirdre English. Comparing childhoods in America today with those of the American colonial period (1600–1776), they have written: "Today, a four year old who can tie his or her shoes is impressive. In colonial times, four-year-old girls knitted stockings and mittens and could produce intricate embroidery: At age six they spun wool. A good, industrious little girl was called 'Mrs instead of 'Miss' in appreciation of her contribution to the family economy: She was not, strictly speaking, a child."
4 These changing ideas about children have led many social scientists to claim that childhood is a "social construction". They use this term to mean
that understandings of childhood are not the same everywhere and that while all societies acknowledge that children are different from adults, how they are different and what expectations are placed on them, change according to the society in which they live.
5 Social anthropologists have shown this in their studies of peoples with very different understandings of the world to Western ones. Jean Briggs has worked with the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic and has described how, within these communities, growing up is largely seen as a process of acquiring thought, reason and understanding (known in Inuit as ihuma). Young children don't possess these qualities and are easily angered, cry frequently and are incapable of understanding the external difficulties facing the community, such as shortages of food. Because they can't be reasoned with, and don't understand, parents treat them with a great deal of tolerance and leniency. It's only when they are older and begin to acquire thought that parents attempt to teach them or discipline them.
6 In contrast, children on the Pacific island of Tonga, studied by Helen Morton, are regularly beaten by their parents and older siblings. They are seen as being closer to mad people than adults because they lack the highly prized quality of social competence (or poto as the Tongans call it). They are regularly told off for being clumsy and a child who falls over may be laughed at, shouted at, or beaten. Children are thought of as mischievous; they cry or want to feed simply because they are naughty, and beatings are at their most severe betweenthe ages of three and five when children are seen as particularly wilful. Parents believe that social competence can only be achieved through discipline and physical punishment, and treat their children in ways that have seemed very harsh to outsiders.
7 In other cases, ideas about children are radically different. For example, the Beng, a small ethnic group in West Africa, assume that very young children know and understand everything that is said to them, in whatever language they are addressed. The Beng, who've been extensively studied by another anthropologist, Alma Gottlieb, believe in a spirit world where children live before they are born and where they know all human
languages and understand all cultures. Life in the spirit world is very pleasant and the